Parthenogenesis
Parthenogenesis, a reproductive strategy that involves development of a female (rarely a male) gamete (sex cell) without fertilization. It occurs commonly among lower plants and invertebrate animals (particularly rotifers, aphids, ants, wasps, and bees) and rarely among higher vertebrates. An egg produced parthenogenetically may be either haploid (i.e., with one set of dissimilar chromosomes) or diploid (i.e., with a paired set of chromosomes). Parthenogenic species may be obligate (that is, incapable of sexual reproduction) or facultative (that is, capable of switching between parthenogenesis and sexual reproduction depending upon environmental conditions). The term parthenogenesis is taken from the Greek words parthos, meaning “virgin,” and genesis, meaning “origin.” More than 2,000 species are thought to reproduce parthenogenically.
Grafting
Grafting is the process of joining two plants together (an upper portion and a lower portion) to grow as one. The upper portion of the plant is known as the scion, which is attached to the lower portion known as the rootstock. This is most often done for fruit trees, and virtually all trees in orchards are grafted. Grafting in the orchard is done because the seeds of a fruit tree cannot reproduce true to their genetics. Therefore, the branch of a desirable tree is grafted to a suitable rootstock.
Layering
Layering is a means of plant propagation in which a portion of an above-ground stem grows roots while still attached to the parent plant and then detaches as an independent plant. Layering has evolved as a common means of vegetative propagation of numerous species in natural environments. Layering is also utilized by horticulturists to propagate desirable plants.